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World History

"Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." — George Santayana

Natural​

Place yourself on Earth.

Earth​

  • World Map: See world_map.pdf. Use Chrome higher resolution.
  • Coordinates: Latitude ("ladder" — flat across like steps) measures distance north or south of the equator. Longitude measures distance east or west of the prime meridian. See latitude_and_longitude.png.
  • US Map: See us_map_regions.png.

Moon​

  • Appearance: Southern hemisphere (Tycho region) looks brighter, northern hemisphere (Plato region) darker. See moon_perspective.png

  • Waxing Direction: From the Northern Hemisphere, the waxing Moon brightens on the right. From the Southern Hemisphere, it brightens on the left. Appears rotated relative to latitude. See moon_phases.png

  • Position in Sky: Appears toward the southern sky for northern viewers, overhead near the equator, toward the northern sky for southern viewers. See moon_perspective.png

  • Lunar Cycle: Completes one orbit around Earth every ~29.5 days (synodic month), cycling through eight phases. See lunar_cycle.png

  • Moonrise Timing: By the time Earth completes a rotation, the Moon has moved forward in its orbit. Earth needs to rotate ~50 min more to catch up.

  • Tidal Locking: The same side always faces us. Earth's gravity created tidal bulges that slowed the Moon's rotation until it matched its orbital period.

  • Distance and Size: Orbits at ~380e3 km (~30 Earth diameters away). Diameter roughly 1/4 of Earth's.

  • Angular Size: Appears the same angular size as the Sun (~0.5°), enabling total solar eclipses. The Sun is ~400x larger but ~400x farther away.

  • Eclipses: Solar eclipse = Moon passes between Earth and the Sun (only at New Moon). Lunar eclipse = Earth passes between Sun and Moon (only at Full Moon). Don't happen monthly because the Moon's orbit is tilted ~5° relative to Earth's. See lunar_eclipse.png

World​

Walk through world history.

See world_history_timeline.mmd.

Ancient Civilizations: 3500 – 500 BCE​

  • First Cities: Around 3500 BCE, Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) built the world's first cities. They developed irrigation systems to farm in the arid river valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

  • First Writing: Sumerians invented cuneiform, one of the earliest writing systems, using wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets. Initially used for record-keeping, it evolved to record laws, literature, and history. See cuneiform.png.

  • Akkadian Empire: Around 2300 BCE, Sargon of Akkad conquered Sumerian city-states, creating the first multi-ethnic empire and demonstrating that diverse peoples could be unified under central authority. See akkadian_empire.png.

  • Code of Hammurabi: Babylonian king Hammurabi created one of the first written law codes around 1750 BCE, establishing "an eye for an eye" justice and codifying social hierarchy. See code_of_hammurabi.png.

  • Bronze Age Technology: Civilizations discovered how to combine copper and tin to create bronze, enabling stronger tools, weapons, and trade networks across the ancient world.

  • Egyptian Civilization: Egyptian civilization emerged along the Nile River around 3100 BCE. Annual flooding deposited nutrient-rich silt, enabling reliable agriculture that supported large populations and centralized government. Known for Pharaohs, pyramids, hieroglyphics, and mummification.

  • Egyptian New Kingdom Expansion: During the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE), Egypt reached its territorial. See new_kingdom_of_egypt.png. Pharaoh Akhenaten (around 1350 BCE) briefly attempted to replace traditional polytheism with worship of a single god, Aten.

  • Phoenician Traders: Phoenicians (modern Lebanon) became master seafarers and traders around 1200 BCE, spreading their alphabet—the basis for Greek and Latin scripts—throughout the Mediterranean.

  • Persian Empire: Cyrus the Great (550 BCE) created a vast empire connecting three continents. Advanced governance, road systems, and communication networks. Zoroastrianism emerges.

Classical Greece: 500 – 320 BCE​

  • Athenian Democracy: In ~500 BCE, Athens developed the world's first democracy (for free men). Olympic Games kept states unified.

  • Sparta's Military: Sparta organized society around military excellence. Boys trained from age seven for warfare. The state subordinated individual freedom to collective discipline, creating ancient Greece's most powerful land army.

  • Greece Vs Persia: In 490 BCE (Battle of Marathon), Greek city-states united to defeat massive Persian invasions.

  • Spartan Vs Athens: In ~430 BCE, Athens and Sparta fought for supremacy. The devastating conflict ended with Spartan victory, Athenian decline, and Greek city-states weakened and vulnerable to outside conquest. See peloponnesian_war.png.

  • Greek Philosophy: In Athens, Socrates pioneered questioning as a path to wisdom, his student Plato explored ideal forms and just government, and Plato's student Aristotle systematically studied logic, ethics, politics, and natural sciences—laying foundations for Western philosophy. Aristotle then tutored Alexander the Great.

  • Greek Empire: In ~335 BCE, Macedonian king Alexander conquered the Persian Empire and reached India (334–323 BCE), spreading Greek culture across the known world. His conquests created the Hellenistic Age, blending Greek and Eastern civilizations. See greek_empire.png.

Roman Republic: 320 – 30 BCE​

  • Roman Republic: In ~500 BCE, Romans overthrew their last king and established a republic. Two consuls shared executive power, with checks and balances preventing tyranny. The Senate, composed of wealthy landowners, held significant influence.

  • Twelve Tables: Around 450 BCE, Rome codified its laws in the Twelve Tables, displayed publicly to ensure legal transparency and protect plebeians (common citizens) from arbitrary patrician (aristocratic) justice.

  • Rome Vs Carthage: Rome fought three wars against Carthage for Mediterranean dominance, known as the Punic Wars. In the Second Punic War (~218 BCE), Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with elephants, but Rome ultimately destroyed Carthage in 146 BCE, becoming the dominant Mediterranean power. See punic_wars.png.

  • Plebeian Uprising: Plebeians struggled for political rights against patricians. Through strikes and protests, they gained the right to hold office and established tribunes to protect their interests, gradually democratizing the Republic.

  • Rome Vs Macedon: Rome fought four wars against Macedon (214–148 BCE) for control of Greece. Roman won these wars dissolving Greece into the Roman Republic.

  • Gracchi Brothers: In ~133 BCE, reformers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus attempted land redistribution to help poor citizens. Both were killed by conservative senators, revealing the Republic's inability to address inequality peacefully.

  • Spartacus Rebellion: In 73 BCE, enslaved gladiator Spartacus led a massive slave revolt that threatened Rome itself. Though crushed, the rebellion exposed Roman dependence on slavery and social tensions.

  • Julius Caesar: Military genius Caesar conquered Gaul (~58–50 BCE), then crossed the Rubicon River with his army in 49 BCE, sparking civil war. He became dictator, implementing reforms but threatening Republican traditions.

  • Caesar's Assassination: On March 15, 44 BCE, senators stabbed Caesar to death, hoping to save the Republic. Instead, his murder triggered further civil wars that ultimately destroyed the Republican system.

See roman_republic.png.

Roman Empire: 30 BCE – 475 CE​

  • Roman Empire: Octavian (Caesar's adopted son) defeated rivals, including Mark Antony and Cleopatra, at Actium in 31 BCE. In 27 BCE, he became Augustus, Rome's first emperor, maintaining Republican appearances while holding absolute power, transforming Rome into an empire. He established 200 years of relative peace and prosperity (Pax Romana). Roman law, roads, and administration unified the Mediterranean world, facilitating trade and cultural exchange across the empire.

  • Roman Engineering: Romans built aqueducts, roads, bridges, and massive structures like the Colosseum. Their concrete and arch technology enabled unprecedented architectural achievements that influenced construction for millennia.

  • Birth of Christianity: Jesus of Nazareth preached in Judea around 30 CE. His crucifixion and followers' claims of resurrection launched Christianity, which spread throughout the empire despite persecution.

  • Great Fire of Rome: In 64 CE, fire destroyed much of Rome. Emperor Nero blamed Christians, beginning periodic persecutions. Despite suppression, Christianity continued growing, particularly among the urban poor and enslaved.

  • Height of Empire: Under Emperor Trajan (~117 CE), Rome reached its maximum territorial extent, stretching from Britain to Mesopotamia. See roman_empire.png. Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE) was one of the "five good emperors" and a stoic philosopher - his death in 180 CE marked the end of the Pax Romana.

  • Crisis of Third Century: From 235–284 CE, Rome suffered civil wars, economic collapse, and barbarian invasions. Over 50 emperors ruled in 50 years, most dying violently, nearly destroying the empire.

  • Constantine's Conversion: Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 313 CE and converted on his deathbed. He moved the capital to Constantinople (modern Istanbul), shifting the empire's center eastward. See roman_capital_shift.png.

  • Empire Divided: In 395 CE, the empire permanently split into Western (capital: Rome) and Eastern (capital: Constantinople) halves, with separate emperors administering each region. See division_of_roman_empire.png.

  • Barbarian Invasions: Germanic tribes increasingly penetrated Roman borders. The Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 CE, shocking the world. Huns under Attila ravaged the empire in the 450s.

  • Fall of Western Rome: In 476 CE, Germanic chieftain Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus. Though symbolic, this marked the Western Empire's end and the beginning of the Medieval period in Europe.

Medieval Europe: 500 – 1400​

  • Byzantine Empire: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, the Eastern Roman Empire—known as the Byzantine Empire—continued for nearly 1,000 years. See byzantine_empire.png. Its capital, Constantinople, grew into one of the world's largest and wealthiest cities. Emperor Justinian I (527–565 CE) issued the Corpus Juris Civilis, a codification of Roman law that influenced legal systems for centuries.

  • Rise of Islam: Prophet Muhammad founded Islam in Arabia (~610 CE). After his death (632 CE), Arab armies rapidly conquered the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. Islamic civilization preserved and advanced Greek and Roman knowledge.

  • Charlemagne Empire: In 800 CE, Pope Leo III crowned Frankish king Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans," reviving the idea of a unified Christian Europe. See charlemagne_empire.png. His empire briefly united much of Western Europe before fragmenting after his death.

  • Viking Age: From ~800–1100 CE, Norse raiders from Scandinavia terrorized coastal Europe, but also established trade routes, settled in England, France (Normandy), and Russia, and reached North America (~1000 CE).

  • Feudalism: Medieval society organized around land-for-loyalty relationships. Kings granted land to nobles, who provided military service. Peasants (serfs) worked the land, bound to their lords. The Church provided spiritual authority and education.

  • The Crusades: From 1095–1291, European Christians launched military campaigns to capture the Holy Land from Muslims. The Crusades increased East-West contact, trade, and cultural exchange, but also caused immense destruction. See the_crusades.png.

  • Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan (1162–1227) united Mongol tribes and conquered the largest contiguous land empire in history, stretching from China to Eastern Europe. The Mongols facilitated trade along the Silk Road but devastated populations. See mongol_empire.png.

  • Black Death: From 1347–1351, bubonic plague killed 30–60% of Europe's population. The catastrophe weakened feudalism, created labor shortages that empowered surviving peasants, and shook faith in traditional institutions.

  • Hundred Years' War: England and France fought from 1337–1453 over territory and succession. Joan of Arc rallied French forces. The war accelerated the decline of feudalism and the rise of national identities. See hundred_years_war.png.

  • Fall of Constantinople: In 1453, Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. Greek scholars fled west, contributing to the Renaissance. The fall blocked traditional trade routes, spurring exploration for new paths to Asia.

Renaissance & Early Modern: 1400 – 1600​

  • Italian Renaissance: Beginning in Florence around 1400, wealthy merchant families like the Medici patronized artists, scholars, and architects. The movement emphasized humanism—the study of classical Greek and Roman texts—and celebrated human potential and individual achievement.

  • Printing Revolution: In ~1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed the printing press with movable type. Books became affordable, literacy spread, and ideas traveled faster than ever before, enabling the Reformation and Scientific Revolution.

  • Age of Exploration: Portuguese sailors pioneered Atlantic exploration. In 1492, Columbus reached the Americas for Spain. Vasco da Gama reached India by sea (1498). These voyages connected continents, launched colonialism, and began the Columbian Exchange.

  • Protestant Reformation: In 1517, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing Church practices, especially the sale of indulgences. His ideas spread rapidly via printing, splitting Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant branches.

  • Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent (1545–1563), clarifying doctrine and reforming abuses. The Jesuits spread Catholic education worldwide.

  • Scientific Revolution Begins: Copernicus proposed a sun-centered universe (1543). Galileo's telescope observations supported this model. These challenges to ancient authority transformed how humans understood nature and knowledge.

  • Ottoman Expansion: The Ottoman Empire dominated the Eastern Mediterranean, Balkans, and Middle East. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) presided over the empire's golden age of military power, law, and culture. See ottoman_empire_expansion.png.

  • Spanish Empire: Spain conquered the Aztec and Inca empires, extracting vast wealth. Charles V ruled Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and American colonies, creating the first empire on which "the sun never set." See spanish_empire.png.

Age of Absolutism: 1600 – 1789​

  • Thirty Years' War: From 1618–1648, religious and political conflicts devastated Central Europe, killing up to 8 million people. The Peace of Westphalia established the modern state system based on sovereignty and non-interference. See 30_years_war.png.

  • Scientific Revolution: Newton's laws of motion and gravity (1687) unified terrestrial and celestial physics. The scientific method—observation, hypothesis, experimentation—replaced reliance on ancient authorities.

  • English Civil War: Parliament and King Charles I fought from 1642–1651. Charles was executed (1649), and England briefly became a republic. The Glorious Revolution (1688) established constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy. See english_civil_war.png.

  • Louis XIV's France: The "Sun King" ruled France from 1643–1715, building Versailles and centralizing absolute power. His wars and extravagance weakened France financially, but French culture dominated Europe.

  • Peter the Great's Russia: Peter modernized Russia (1682–1725), building St. Petersburg, creating a navy, and forcing Western customs on the nobility. Russia became a major European power.

  • Enlightenment: Philosophers like Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau applied reason to politics and society. Ideas of natural rights, separation of powers, and social contracts influenced revolutions to come.

  • Seven Years' War: The first truly global conflict (1756–1763) saw Britain and Prussia defeat France, Austria, and Russia. Britain gained French Canada and dominance in India, becoming a global empire. See 7_years_war.png.

Revolutionary Era: 1789 – 1848​

  • French Revolution: In 1789, economic crisis and Enlightenment ideas sparked revolution. The storming of the Bastille, Declaration of the Rights of Man, and execution of Louis XVI transformed France. The Reign of Terror followed, killing thousands.

  • Napoleonic Era: Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in 1799, crowned himself emperor in 1804, and conquered much of Europe. His Napoleonic Code spread revolutionary legal principles. Defeated at Waterloo (1815), he was exiled, but his legacy reshaped Europe. See napoleonic_empire.png.

  • Congress of Vienna: After Napoleon's defeat, European powers redrew boundaries and restored monarchies (1814–1815). The Concert of Europe maintained relative peace for decades through balance-of-power diplomacy.

  • Latin American Independence: Inspired by American and French revolutions, colonies across Latin America won independence (1810s–1820s). Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín liberated much of South America from Spanish rule.

  • Industrial Revolution: Beginning in Britain (~1760s), mechanized factories transformed production. Steam power, railroads, and urbanization reshaped society. Living conditions for workers were often brutal, sparking labor movements.

  • Revolutions of 1848: Nationalist and liberal uprisings swept Europe, demanding constitutions and unification. Most were suppressed, but they weakened old regimes and planted seeds for future change.

Imperialism & World Wars: 1848 – 1945​

  • Unification of Italy and Germany: Italy unified by 1871 under Piedmont-Sardinia. Prussia's Bismarck unified Germany through wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, creating a powerful new empire.

  • Scramble for Africa: European powers carved up Africa at the Berlin Conference (1884–1885). By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Colonial exploitation caused lasting damage to African societies. See .

  • Meiji Restoration: Japan rapidly modernized after 1868, adopting Western technology and institutions while preserving Japanese culture. Victory over Russia (1905) announced Japan as a world power.

  • World War I: Sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914), alliance systems dragged Europe into devastating trench warfare. The war killed 16 million and destroyed empires (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, German). See ww1.png.

  • Russian Revolution: In 1917, revolution overthrew the Tsar. The Bolsheviks under Lenin seized power, establishing the world's first communist state. Civil war and Stalin's purges killed millions.

  • Great Depression: The 1929 stock market crash triggered global economic collapse. Mass unemployment and poverty destabilized democracies and fueled the rise of fascism in Germany, Italy, and Japan.

  • World War II: Nazi Germany's aggression (invasion of Poland, 1939) started history's deadliest conflict. The Holocaust murdered 6 million Jews. The war ended with atomic bombs on Japan (1945), killing 70–85 million total. See ww2.png.

Cold War & Modern Era: 1945 – Present​

  • United Nations Founded: Established in 1945 to prevent future wars and promote international cooperation. The UN has expanded to address human rights, development, and peacekeeping.

  • Cold War Division: The U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers. Europe divided into NATO and Warsaw Pact blocs. The conflict played out through proxy wars, espionage, and nuclear arms race without direct superpower warfare.

  • Decolonization: European empires collapsed as colonies gained independence. India (1947), African nations (1960s), and others emerged, though often facing instability, poverty, and Cold War interference.

  • Chinese Revolution: Mao Zedong's Communists defeated Nationalists in 1949. The Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution caused tens of millions of deaths. After Mao's death (1976), China embraced market reforms under Deng Xiaoping.

  • European Integration: The European Coal and Steel Community (1951) evolved into the European Union. Economic integration and shared institutions brought unprecedented peace and prosperity to a historically war-torn continent.

  • Fall of Communism: Gorbachev's reforms unintentionally accelerated Soviet collapse. The Berlin Wall fell (1989), Eastern Europe democratized, and the Soviet Union dissolved (1991), ending the Cold War.

  • Globalization: International trade, technology, and communication accelerated. The internet transformed commerce, politics, and daily life. Global challenges like climate change, pandemics, and terrorism require international cooperation.

  • Rise of China: China's economic growth made it the world's second-largest economy. Its increasing assertiveness challenges the post-Cold War international order dominated by the United States.